José Luís Borges

Abstract
Subgroup discovery (SD) aims at finding significant subgroups of a given population of individuals characterized by statistically unusual properties of interest. SD on event logs provides insight into particular behaviors of processes, which may be a valuable complement to the traditional process analysis techniques, especially for low -structured processes. This paper proposes a scalable and efficient method to search significant SD rules on frequent sequences of events, exploiting their multidimensional nature. With this method, it is intended to identify significant subsequences of events where the distribution of values of some target aspect is significantly different than the same distribution for the entire event log. A publicly available real -life event log of a Dutch hospital is used as a running example to demonstrate the applicability of our method. The proposed approach was applied on a real -life case study based on the public transport of a medium size European city (Porto, Portugal), for which the event data consists of 133 million smartcard travel validations from buses, trams and trains. The results include a characterization of mobility flows over multiple aspects, as well as the identification of unexpected behaviors in the flow of commuters (public transport). The generated knowledge provided a useful insight into the behavior of travelers, which can be applied at operational, tactical and strategic business levels, enhancing the current view of the transport services to transport authorities and operators.

Abstract
Maintaining process quality is one of the biggest challenges manufacturing industries face, as production processes have become increasingly complex and difficult to monitor effectively in today's manufacturing contexts. Reliance on skilled operators can result in suboptimal solutions, impacting process quality. In doing so, the importance of quality monitoring and diagnosis methods cannot be undermined. Existing approaches have limitations, including assumptions, prior knowledge requirements, and unsuitability for certain data types. To address these challenges, we present a novel unsupervised monitoring and detection methodology to monitor and evaluate the evolution of a quality characteristic's degradation. To measure the degradation we created a condition index that effectively captures the quality characteristic's mean and scale shifts from the company's specification levels. No prior knowledge or data assumptions are required, making it highly flexible and adaptable. By transforming the unsupervised problem into a supervised one and utilising historical production data, we employ logistic regression to predict the quality characteristic's conditions and diagnose poor condition moments by taking advantage of the model's interpretability. We demonstrate the methodology's application in a glass container production process, specifically monitoring multiple defective rates. Nonetheless, our approach is versatile and can be applied to any quality characteristic. The ultimate goal is to provide decision-makers and operators with a comprehensive view of the production process, enabling better-informed decisions and overall product quality improvement.

Abstract
Automatic Root Cause Analysis solutions aid analysts in finding problems' root causes by using automatic data analysis. When trying to locate the root cause of a problem in a manufacturing process, an issue-denominated overlap can occur. Overlap can impede automated diagnosis using algorithms, as the data make it impossible to discern the influence of each machine on the quality of products. This paper proposes a new measure of overlap based on an information theory concept called Positive Mutual Information. This new measure allows for a more detailed analysis. A new approach is developed for automatically finding the root causes of problems when overlap occurs. A visualization that depicts overlapped locations is also proposed to ease practitioners' analysis. The proposed solution is validated in simulated and real case-study data. Compared to previous solutions, the proposed approach improves the capacity to pinpoint a problem's root causes.

Abstract
Root cause analysis (RCA) is the process through which we find the true cause of a problem. It is a crucial process in manufacturing, as only after finding the root cause and addressing it, it is possible to improve the manufacturing operation. However, this is a very time-consuming process, especially if the amount of data about the manufacturing operation is considerable. With the increase in automation and the advent of Industry 4.0, sensorization of manufacturing environments has expanded, increasing with it the data available. The conjuncture described gives rise to the challenge and the opportunity of automatizing root cause analysis (at least partially), making this process more efficient, using tools from data mining and machine learning to help the analyst find the root cause of a problem. This paper presents an overview of the literature that has been published in the last 17 years on developing automatic root cause analysis (ARCA) solutions in manufacturing. The literature on the topic is disperse and it is currently lacking a connecting thread. As such, this study analyzes how previous studies developed the different elements of an ARCA solution for manufacturing: the types of data used, the methodologies, and the evaluation measures of the methods proposed. The proposed conceptualization establishes the base on which future studies on ARCA can develop results from this analysis, identifying gaps in the literature and future research opportunities.

Abstract
Overlap has been identified in previous works as a significant obstacle to automated diagnosis using data mining algorithms, since it makes it impossible to discern how each machine influences product quality. Several solutions that handle overlap have been proposed, but the final result is a list of potential overlapped root causes. The goal of this paper is to develop a solution resilient to overlap that can determine the true root cause from a list of possible root causes, when possible, and determine the conditions in which it is possible to identify the root causes. This allows for a better understanding of overlap, and enables the development of a fully automatic root cause analysis for manufacturing. To do so, we propose an automatic root cause analysis approach that uses causal inference and do calculus to determine the true root cause. The proposed approach was validated on simulated and real case-study data, and allowed for an estimation of the effect of a product passing through a certain machine while disregarding the effect of overlap, in certain conditions. The results were on par with the state-of-the-art solutions capable of handling overlap. The contributions of this paper are a graphical definition of overlap, the identification of the conditions in which is possible to overcome the effect of overlap, and a solution that can present a single true root cause when such conditions are met.